House Tells DEA To Leave State Hemp Programs Alone!

Posted: 05/30/2014
WASHINGTON -- House members early Friday blocked the Drug Enforcement Administration from using funds to interfere in state-legal industrial hemp research, a rebuke to the agency less than a month after it seized hemp seeds intended for Kentucky's pilot program.
Two hemp-related amendments to a DEA funding bill introduced by Rep. Thomas Massie (R-Ky.) and Rep. Suzanne Bonamici (D-Ore.) prohibit the Department of Justice, including the DEA, from blocking states' importation of hemp seeds, and from preventing states from implementing laws authorizing industrial hemp activities made legal under this year's federal farm bill.
Massie’s amendment passed 246-162, and Bonamici’s was approved 237-170. The Senate will likely consider its own appropriations bill for the DEA and Justice Department, and the House amendments would have to survive a joint conference before going into effect.
"The DEA has more important things to do than interfere with legal activities at the state level," Rep. Earl Blumenauer (D-Ore.) said. "We need to remove the cloud of uncertainty,"
Massie said Kentucky was forced into a "waste of time and money and the court system's limited resources" during a legal battle with the DEA over its hemp seeds this month. “The DEA is not above Congress, it’s not above the law,” Massie added. “This amendment simply asks the DEA to follow existing laws.”
"Farmers are unable to get the seed they need in order to grow their legal crop," said Rep. Jared Polis (D-Colo.). "It's really hard to grow industrial hemp, and the DEA without any clear reason, any argument, any sense, throws itself down as a roadblock to success."
But Reps. Bob Goodlatte (R-Va.) and Frank Wolf (R-Va.) opposed the hemp seed amendment.
“If you take the DEA out of the process, you’re going to have a situation where this law will be honored in name only and not used for the purpose it is intended, which is research,” Goodlatte said. “You cannot determine the THC limits of cannabis plants simply by looking at them. They need to be examined. The DEA fulfills that role.”
Fifteen states have legalized industrial hemp production, and about two dozen others have introduced legislation that would authorize research, set up a regulatory framework or legalize the growing of industrial hemp.
As Kentucky prepared to launch its hemp-growing project, the DEA seized 250-pound shipment of industrial hemp seeds at the Louisville airport this month. Kentucky sued the DEA for seeds' release and took possession a week later after obtaining a DEA permit.
The DEA action incensed Democratic and Republican lawmakers involved in the new industrial hemp laws, and was condemned by Kentucky Agriculture Commissioner James Comer, Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell (R-Ky.), his Democratic challenger Alison Lundergan Grimes, Rep. Earl Blumenauer (D-Ore.) and Sen. Rand Paul (R-Ky.).
Hemp is the same plant species as marijuana -- cannabis sativa -- but it contains little to no THC, the psychoactive ingredient in marijuana associated with the "high" sensation.
Hemp, sometimes called marijuana's "sober cousin," has a long history in America and has been used in a wide range of household products, including paper, cosmetics and textiles. In the 1700s, American colonial farmers were required by law to grow the plant, and it was used for hundreds of years in the U.S. to make rope and lamp oil.
American hemp production peaked in 1943, with more than 150 million pounds from 146,200 harvested acres. Production dropped to zero in the late-1950s as a result of rising anti-drug sentiment and competition from synthetic fibers. Story from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/politics

Hemp As A Bio-Fuel Is One Step Closer To Reality

RENO, Nev., May 1, 2014 /PRNewswire/ -- Discovery Minerals LTD. (OTC PINK: DSCR)  (PINKSHEETS: DSCR) is pleased to provide shareholders with further information regarding the Joint Venture (JV) with Syngar Technologies.  

A research study concluded that Syngar's PLUSWave technology increased ethanol production by an overall average of 26%.  The PLUSWave technology optimized the conversion of cellulose to sugars and enhanced ethanol yield.  The proposed pilot project will utilize Cellunol Inc.'s proprietary technology to reduce costs and speed the pre-treatment of cellulose materials to form a slurry suitable for fermentation into ethanol.

With the worldwide increase in demand for oil, concern over the environmental impact of the use of fossil fuels and the challenge of sourcing a sustainable crop to provide the cellulose needed for Bio-Fuel fermentation, hemp may very well be part of the solution.

Corn based ethanol is the Bio-Fuel most favored by current United States government subsidies for renewable fuels. Hemp is an improvement over corn-based ethanol on several counts: higher soil conservation, nearly non-existent herbicide & pesticide requirements, higher yields, and greater suitability for cellulosic ethanol production, as opposed to either grains or corn. When compared to other plant species of active interest in Bio-Fuel production, hemp derives 100% more cellulose than species under active investigation.  Production costs for corn-based ethanol is nearly twice that of estimated production costs for hemp derived ethanol.  Hemp and its related species provide denser cellulose content than corn, higher sugar content, and derives higher ethanol yields per metric ton at lower costs.

Hemp is found to be a superior cultivar for Bio-Fuel production.  Hemp exhibits far superior ethanol yields per unit biomass compared to corn.  Pretreatment is necessary to alter the cellular structure of the biomass at hand.  Specifically, lignin presents a significant stumbling-block to the fermentation of cellulosic material. Pretreatment procedures are primarily aimed at breaking down lignin.  The challenge of stripping lignin from lignin bound cellulosic plant matter is the primary complexity that must be overcome prior to the direct conversion of cellulose to ethanol. In conclusion, Discovery's JV pilot project intends to overcome these challenges and establish a new industry standard for the pre-treatment process of Hemp in Bio-Fuel production.

About Syngar and PLUSWave:

The Company is a private Canadian company based in Edmonton, Alberta. Syngar licensed a technology, which we call "Pulsed Low Ultra Sound Wave" (PLUSWave) Technology. The PLUS Wave TM license is a worldwide and exclusive for application in biofuels. The PLUSWave Technology uses specific and proprietary ultrasound frequencies, at specific power levels, over set time intervals to stimulate the fermentation growth of algae, bacteria, fungus or yeast microorganisms by upwards of 30 - 50%.

About Discovery Minerals LTD.:

Discovery Minerals Ltd., (OTC: DSCR) is a production stage company formed to acquire and develop natural resource properties. Activities include gold, precious metals and petroleum minerals, including rare earth minerals production and sales. The Company initiated a new program to evaluate undervalued assets, including clean tech and alternative energy investments, for potential addition to its portfolio.

Safe Harbor: This release includes forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933 and Section 27E of the Securities Act of 1934. Statements contained in this release that are not historical facts may be deemed to be forward-looking statements. Investors are cautioned that forward-looking statements are inherently uncertain. Actual performance and results may differ materially from that projected or suggested herein due to certain risks and uncertainties including, without limitation, ability to obtain financing and regulatory and shareholder approval for anticipated actions.

Contact Person:
Bill McNerny
+1(310)961-4654 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting +1(310)961-4654 FREE  end_of_the_skype_highlighting
At: info@discoveryholdingscorp.com

SOURCE Discovery Minerals LTD.

Cellular Respiration & Photosynthesis

Plants use a process of breathing called cellular respiration. It begins with a process called photosynthesis that absorbs sunlight and breathes carbon dioxide (CO2). Plants turn carbon dioxide into oxygen. Plants also create cellulose fibers. by turning glucose into cellulose; that's how plants grow! Burning hemp releases the same amount of CO2 as it absorbs in its life cycle - closed loop! No fake carboon taxes. Cellular respiration, also known as 'oxidative metabolism', is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy. Nutrients commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include glucose, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). Photosynthesis (from the Greek φώτο- [photo-], "light," and σύνθεσις [synthesis], "putting together", "composition") is a process that converts carbon dioxide (CO2 AL GORE) into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis evolved early in the evolutionary history of life, when all forms of life on Earth were microorganisms and the atmosphere had much more carbon dioxide. 2n CO2 + 2n H2O + photons → 2(CH2O)n + n O2 + 2n A

Glucose C6H12O6 (equals 6 water + 6 carbons). Glucose (Glc), a simple sugar (monosaccharide) is an important carbohydrate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration. "Glucose" comes from the Greek word glukus (γλυκύς), meaning "sweet." The suffix "-ose" denotes a sugar. Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5), a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is the most common organic compound on Earth. About 33% of all plant matter is cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton is 90% and that of wood is 40-50%) Fiber, also spelled fibre, is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues together. Human uses for fibers are diverse. They can be spun into filaments, string or rope, used as a component of composite materials, or matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. Synthetic fibers can be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural fibers, but natural fibers enjoy some benefits, such as comfort, over their man-made counterparts.

 Information from: ReLegalize.Info

Hemp can be that Bio Fuel ~ George Washington Carver and Henry Ford Shared a Bio-fuel Vision

Henry Ford & George Washington Carver

www.hemphealthytoday.com 

George Washington Carver and Henry Ford shared a vision of a future in which agricultural products would be put to new uses to create products and industries.

Though worlds apart, George Washington Carver and Henry Ford shared a vision of a future in which agricultural products would be put to new uses to create products and industries.
One idea both men worked on more than 60 years ago -- biofuels -- is again in vogue as America seeks to reduce its dependence on foreign oil.
"Henry Ford was ahead of his time on this. He knew he needed fuel for transportation, and if he could develop something that was good for agriculture too, it would be a good match," said Dick Baker, a tech leader at Ford's powertrain, research and advanced engineering department.
"Henry also knew of Carver's work and said 'that's somebody I need to learn more about,' " said Baker.
That was because Carver, born a slave in Missouri during the Civil War, had become a world-famous botanist by the 1930s, famed for his research into the many uses of peanuts, soybeans and other plants. Over the years, Carver promoted the idea that such plants could be turned into plastics, paint, fuel and other products.
Ford was interested in the same things. Besides his legendary work creating plastic car parts derived from soybeans, Ford had long believed that ethanol (or grain alcohol) should be produced as an alternative fuel.
"All the world is waiting for a substitute for gasoline," Ford said in 1916. "The day is not far distant when, for every one of those barrels of gasoline, a barrel of alcohol must be substituted."
During the early days of Prohibition, he even suggested turning Michigan's idled breweries into distilleries to make denatured alcohol for fuel in cars and trucks, noted historian Ford Bryan. That went nowhere since Prohibition doomed the idea of any large-scale switch to alcohol production.
The automaker learned of Carver following his donations to the Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) in Alabama where the botanist was a faculty member, Bryan said.
At Tuskegee, Carver had promoted the use of crop rotation -- planting such nitrogen-rich crops as peanuts, sweet potatoes and soybeans -- to improve farmland depleted by years of raising cotton. In so doing, he also worked on hundreds of new uses for such crops.
Though he's often credited with inventing hundreds of uses for the peanut alone, Carver left few formulas or detailed records, making such claims by admirers hard to verify.
By the late 1930s, Carver and Ford were corresponding on a variety of subjects, including new industrial uses for soybeans and other plants. Ford had also met with Carver in Dearborn and at Ford's estate in Georgia and visited him at Tuskegee.
At first glance, they must have seemed like a strange mix -- the billionaire industrialist from the North and the modest scientist and naturalist from the South. But Ford regarded Carver as a contemporary. Both men had been born on farms during the Civil War and both had sought, in their own ways, to improve the lot of the common man.
After Thomas Edison died, the automaker even called Carver "the greatest of all my inspiring friends." To honor him, Ford also had a replica of Carver's log cabin birthplace built amid the other historic buildings at Greenfield Village in Dearborn. In addition, Ford helped outfit a laboratory for Carver and had an elevator installed in a Tuskegee dormitory so the botanist could get to his lab more easily in his later years.
While certainly forward-thinking, the idea that agriculture could be used to create alternative fuels wasn't totally new with Carver and Ford. The German inventor Rudolph Diesel had created an engine that ran on peanut oil in 1900. But both Carver and Ford believed that petroleum supplies would one day become limited. And both promoted the alternative uses of soybeans, which Ford used to make car parts in the 1930s.
This interest culminated in 1942, when Ford showcased a car with a plastic body made from soybeans. Attached to a tubular frame, the body weighed 30 percent less than a steel car and was much more flexible and durable. The experimental car was also equipped to run on ethanol rather than gasoline but such a novel idea failed to catch on.
By that time, huge new oil fields were being discovered and petroleum had become much more cost-effective than plant-based ethanol, said Baker.
"Agricultural fuels take a fair amount of processing to create, whereas petroleum comes out of the ground and just needs refining," Baker said. "The principles were right for what Ford and Carver were doing in the lab, but they didn't have the tools we do now to go big-time with the idea.
"Now, we're revisiting their old story with new tools, and exciting things are going on in the laboratory again," he said.
More than 60 years later, the ethanol-fueled dreams of Carver and Ford are becoming a reality.
http://www.theautochannel.com/

State lawmaker pushes hemp as cash crop for Hawaii

State lawmaker pushes hemp as cash crop for Hawaii

Posted: Feb 05, 2014 5:04 PM CST Updated: Feb 05, 2014 10:08 PM CST

By Jim Mendoza - bio | email

http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/24646113/state-lawmaker-pushes-hemp-as-cash-crop-for-hawaii?autoStart=true&topVideoCatNo=default&clipId=9809274

(Please Click on Link to show Video)

HONOLULU (HawaiiNewsNow) -

A provision in the federal Farm Bill just passed by Congress allows for industrial hemp to be legally grown across the U.S. for research purposes.

"Without any DEA permit, without any restrictions," state Rep. Cynthia Thielen said. "It can be grown under a university research project or under the state departments of agriculture."

Thielen hopes that leads to hemp farming in Hawaii. She is behind a bill that would authorize the University of Hawaii to conduct a two-year study. It would grow hemp and explore its uses as a soil cleaner and biofuel.

"If it has the capability to be used for biofuels you're talking airplane industry, trucking industry, motorists," Thielen said.

UH College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources would do the research under the leadership of professor Harry Ako.

"You have to mess around with growing it a little bit. You have to grow the correct variety that will survive our tropical environment," he said.

Ako believes hemp could be grown on land now considered off limits. Hawaii has six areas the federal EPA lists as contaminated -- four on Oahu, one on the Big Island and one on Maui.

"That land is not useable anymore. If you grow something in that land it'll become poisonous," Ako said.

According to Thielen, growing hemp on those sites could cleanse the soil of toxins.

"They're actually using it in Chernobyl to clean up the atomic wastes from that explosion in Russia," she said.

Industrial hemp is in the same plant family as marijuana, but it can't get you high like pot. The U.S. has only been able to import goods containing hemp, not manufacture them. It's used in products from handbags, to body washes to building materials.

"Hemp has at least 25,000 uses. It's an entrepreneur's dream," Thielen said.

She has been advocating hemp cultivation in Hawaii for fifteen years. Ten states have passed laws to grow the plant for research. It could be the first step to growing it for revenue.
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The Use of Hemp Milk to Treat Tuberculosis

This Story was Shared from:     www.globalhemp.com  http://www.globalhemp.com/

The Use of Hemp Milk to Treat Tuberculosis

By: Arthur Hanks Posted in Articles

6

In the following clip, Garnet Kranz of Killaloe, Ontario, Canada speaks about his family’s history of hemp milk being used to treat tuberculosis (TB). When his grandmother was a girl, she spent time in South America, where there was a Tuberculosis sanitorium run by priests. At this hospital a hemp milk formula, possibly fermented, and thick enough to be drunk with a straw, was used to treat TB. The exact recipe and clinical usage is unknown.

Hemp Milk and the White Plague

Tuberculosis (TB) is a persistent disease that has dogged human populations throughout history. It was sometimes referred to as Consumption, because sufferers would “waste away” as they were consumed by the illness. Pulmonary tuberculosis, caused by bacteria infecting the lungs, was the most common form. TB was dreaded as “The White Plague” as it used to be the leading source of death in the USA.
One American folk belief centered in New England in the 18th and 19th century links vampirism with TB.¹ The bacterial form of the disease would lead to infection of family members, leading some to think a dead relative had returned from the grave and was feeding off their family!
Advances in treatment, vaccinations and strong public health programs helped to diminish TB’s incidence in the 20th century. It’s not on the public’s radar. However, TB is still very common in the developing world, where most of the planet’s population lives poverty markedly increases the risk factor for the disease. And even at home, some disadvantaged groups remain at risk. For example, in Canada, rates of infection are 10 times higher on Native reserves. People with weakened immune systems — the elderly or AIDS/HIV victims — remain quite vulnerable.
An innovative Czech study from the 1930’s, right before World War Two, used hemp seeds in a nutritional therapeutic trial to treat tuberculosis. At a hospital in Jince (south west of Prague), patients (all poor urban youth suffering from TB and aged 6-20) were given a daily feeding of hemp milk. The formula included a measure of 1¾ – 2¾ ounces (50-80 grams) of ground hemp seed that was mixed with lightly heated milk 140-176° F (60-80° C), stirred, pressed and then strained to remove the seed hull and grit. In this study, oat flakes were also added — to add body and as a source of aleurone, also considered important.
The researchers Drs. Sirek and Kabelik, chose hemp and oats for pragmatic reasons. They were easy to digest and widely available in Bohemia, even in tough times. The hemp milk & oatmeal mix supplemented a diet designed to be easy on the liver. The trial was continued on an ad hoc basis during WWII, when food shortages were even more acute due to the German occupation. Ten more children were treated.
Sirek and Kabelik found their patients were able to arrest their weight loss, recover their appetites, and due to their improved health were able to recover from TB infection. In a paper presented in the 1950’s, the researchers concluded that the “hemp seed edestine … was the only substantive base of the whole treatment.”²
The concept was solid and replicable. Basically, in order to fight TB, foods had to be able to help the body’s organs and tissue rebuild. Hemp seed — a nutritionally significant source of edestin and arginine proteins, and today also known to be a powerful source of Essentially Fatty Acids — proved to be a low cost and very method of helping sick children get better.

Children Treated with Hemp for Tuberculosis

A short oral report recounts that a similar therapy was used in a hospital in South America in the 1930’s. According to Garnet Kranz of Killaloe, ON, the seed mix was quite strong, almost vacuum packed, and had to be drank with a straw. Afterwards, the pulp would be eaten in order to fill the stomach.
Today, there’s been certainly many advances in medical science, including chemotherapy, powerful antibiotics and surgery, but complimentary and non-invasive dietary solutions remain pertinent, and not just with TB, but in many conditions.
With dehulled hemp seed available on the market, consumers can easily make their own hemp milk without the grit. Pre-made and mixed hemp milk is also sold by the carton, available in different flavors and formulas.
But heath is not just for sick people. Hemp foods, in all their forms, have a lot to offer.

Footnotes

1. Bioarcheological and Biocultural Evidence for the New England Vampire Folk Belief
2. Importance of hemp seeds in the tuberculosis therapy

About the Author

 

Arthur Hanks is a Canadian writer who has been covering the growing hemp industry on a professional basis since 1997. He has contributed to numerous farm and nonfarm publications regarding the many aspects of industrial hemp. In 1999, he started the Hemp Commerce & Farming Report, later renamed The Hemp Report, as an online magazine to serve and promote the North American Hemp Industry.

Cannabinoids Occur Naturally in Human Breast Milk



The same cannabinoids found in marijuana are also found in breast milk. This may initially sound shocking to some, but the fact is that these cannabinoids have an important purpose in the growth and development of babies. Cannabinoids promote hunger in newborns, which ensures both an adequate milk supply in the mother and enough nutrition for baby.

The Purpose

Babies have to learn how to eat after birth. Cannabinoid receptors in the brain bind to the chemicals in breast milk to trigger a hunger response in babies. This response helps babies to nurse frequently. Frequent nursing is very important during the first months of life as baby learns how to eat. The brain and body of a newborn rapidly develops during the first year of life. Breast milk contains everything that a baby needs to develop, but the baby must first learn how to suckle. When cannabinoid receptors in the brain are activated, newborns experience a natural response that improves the coordination of muscles used to drink breast milk.
The naturally occurring cannabinoids in breast milk have a specific biological purpose that helps infants gain weight after birth. The same response that encourages an infant to eat is reflected among cancer patients who use medical marijuana to regain their appetite after treatment based caused severe weight loss and nausea. The fact that the human body has receptors for cannabinoids is important to consider. The cannabinoids in breast milk are the same as those found in marijuana. As a medicinal plant, marijuana can be beneficial for many reasons.
When used medicinally, marijuana can improve immune function and reduce the symptoms of many diseases. Cannabis is a natural pain reliever that has been used in some states as an alternative medicine for cancer, glaucoma, and for anxiety and depression among adults. The use of marijuana among cancer patients has been well documented as reducing the severe side effects of cancer treatment, which can include nausea, tiredness, vomiting, and depression. In modern society, marijuana is slowly becoming a viable complement to traditional medical treatments. According to HerbalMission.org, cannabis is useful in the treatment of Alzhimer’s disease, migranes, premenstrual syndrome, and seizures.

The Benefits of Cannabis

Cannabis has an effect on both the central nervous system and the immune system. BBC News reports that multiple sclerosis sufferers have experienced relief from symptoms of the disease by using cannabis extracts after other treatments failed. The relaxing properties of marijuana extracts can also be useful in the treatment of some mood disorders. The true potential of marijuana, especially in its natural form, is yet to be determined because of the stigma attached to the use of the plant. Luckily, people have started to realize that cannabis is a truly medicinal plant that can improve health while promoting a sense of well-being when used properly.
Fresh marijuana leaves can be juiced to create a healthy drink that contains dozens of beneficial cannabinoids. The use of marijuana as a natural remedy to illness and disease dates back thousands of years. It is only in recent history that the use of cannabis has become taboo. With more people fighting illness and disease than ever, the use of medical marijuana is growing. Cannabinoids, and cannabis, are safe and effective in the treatment of many different conditions. That human body was designed to make use of cannabinoids from birth. Natural cannabis,rather than extracts, is the best way to get the health benefits of marijuana.

Story Found, and Shared From:http://primalhealthnews.com/      https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JeK0zBg_sKA&feature=player_embedded

Hemp Processing explained by, President Shaun Crew, Hemp Oil Canada

American Farmers can look forward to Growing this Productive Crop Soon!

Thank you to Our Friends In Canada, They will be able to help America Grow and Process this Valuable Resource!

New News From Canada that Just might Peak American Farmers to continue the Industrial Hemp Market / Farming In America

(Hot Off The Press)
Farmers high on hemp as returns beat canola

Strong prices have led to ‘unprecedented’ interest in the crop, says Hemp Oil Canada rep
Posted 18 hours ago by Daniel Winters

in Crops       

 

 

Kevin Friesen, seed production manager for Hemp Oil Canada and a hemp grower himself, explains how to grow the Prairie’s newest crop at a recent agronomy workshop at the Food Development Centre in Portage la Prairie.

photo: Daniel Winters

 

Hemp acres in Manitoba are set to shatter records again this year as interest in the crop rises to an unprecedented level, the seed production manager for Hemp Oil Canada said last week.
Kevin Friesen told about 30 farmers meeting at the Food Development Centre here that he anticipates 90,000 acres of contracted production this spring, up from about 67,000 last year, and way, way up from just 8,000 acres in 2007. The crop was approved for production in Canada in 1998.
“Normally, people migrate towards hemp when it’s about twice as profitable as canola,” said Friesen, who estimated that a good crop of conventional hemp, at about 40 bushels to the acre contracted at 70 cents per pound will rake in gross revenue of $700/acre compared to about $240/acre for canola.
“It is an easy crop to grow, but you have to be willing to put in extra time and management to be successful,” he added.
In Manitoba, the most popular variety is CRS-1, but Finola and CFX-1 and 2 are the mainstays in Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Finola, brought in from Finland in 1998, has the smallest seed, with 1,000 seeds tipping the scale at 13 grams compared to CRS-1 at 17 g/1,000. Finola matures in 100 days, CFX-1 and 2 at 103-105 days, and CRS-1 at 110 days.
Finola is the shortest variety, but with hemp, “height expression” varies according to the latitude where it is planted. The higher the latitude, the taller hemp grows, and vice versa, said Friesen, noting that in southern Ontario, Finola only grows knee-high, but 800 km north of Edmonton, it can reach eight to 10 feet.
Shorter plants are easier to harvest, but taller plants cope better with weeds. It matures according to hours of daylight, so pushing back the seeding date can ensure a shorter crop at harvest.
The herbicide Assure II, already allowed in Eastern Canada, may be approved for use here by spring, becoming the first herbicide registered for use on the crop.
A handful of dual-purpose, grain and fibre varieties have also been developed by the Parkland Industrial Hemp Growers (PIHG), but a market for hemp fibre may still be a few years away due to delays at the Gilbert Plains processing plant.
Jeff Kostiuk, acting diversification specialist with the Parkland Crop Diversification Foundation based in Roblin and provincial hemp agronomy contact, said that it’s still not too late to apply for permission from Health Canada.
Permits are good for one year, and growers need only submit field GPS co-ordinates from Google Earth, proof of consent from the landowner, and agree to a criminal record check.
Only pedigreed seed is allowed because farm-saved seed can spontaneously boost THC levels — the compound that gives marijuana its buzz. Crop samples must be submitted for testing by an approved sampler at a cost of $300 per field, but some hemp varieties such as CRS-1 are exempt from that requirement due to consistently low THC levels.

More from the Manitoba Co-operator website: Legalization down south may be a buzz kill up north

Seeding is best at half-inch depth into well-drained, warm, moist soil at 8-10 C at a rate of 25 pounds per acre at low fan speed to avoid seed damage. Research shows seed mortality averages 50-70 per cent regardless of seeding density or variety, and best results for grain come with two to 12 plants per square foot due to the crop’s ability to fill in thin spots. Row cropping hemp at 22-inch spacing works well, too.
Hemp is a big plant that is “very hungry” for nutrients, especially potash which goes mainly into the stalks, said Kostiuk. It loves nitrogen, and especially well-manured fields.
Some of the best hemp growers are organic farmers who grow alfalfa for hay for three years followed by silage peas and hemp. The crop, which pays $1.25 per bushel for organic, does well for them because a mid-June seeding date allows for a few weeks of tillage to control weeds.
Disease issues with hemp are minimal. Gophers are the most serious pest.
Harvest is best done while the plants are still a bit green, and many have found that a John Deere 9600 combine with a draper header works best. Knives must be new or in good shape, and setting the apron three to four feet high to avoid the fibrous stalks prevents plugging.
“Don’t put hemp fibre through the combine if you don’t have to,” said Friesen.
Residue can be a headache, he added, but some farmers use a forage harvester to chop up the stalks, which are then harrowed into piles and burned.

       

Antibacterial Cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa: A Structure−Activity Study

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Giovanni Appendino *^†‡, Simon Gibbons *, Anna Giana ^†‡, Alberto Pagani ^†‡, Gianpaolo Grassi ^§, Michael Stavri , Eileen Smith and M. Mukhlesur Rahman

Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Alimentari, Farmaceutiche e Farmacologiche, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Via Bovio 6, 28100 Novara, Italy, Consorzio per lo Studio dei Metaboliti Secondari (CSMS), Viale S. Ignazio 13, 09123 Cagliari, Italy, Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, The School of Pharmacy, University of London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, U.K., and CRA-CIN Centro di Ricerca per le Colture Industriali, Sede distaccata di Rovigo, Via Amendola 82, 45100 Rovigo, Italy

J. Nat. Prod., 2008, 71 (8), pp 1427–1430

DOI: 10.1021/np8002673

Publication Date (Web): August 6, 2008

Copyright © 2008 The American Chemical Society and American Society of Pharmacognosy

* To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +39 0321 373744 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting +39 0321 373744 FREE  end_of_the_skype_highlighting (G.A.); +44 207 753 5913 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting +44 207 753 5913 FREE  end_of_the_skype_highlighting (S.G.). Fax: +39 0321 375621 (G.A.); +44 207 753 5909 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting +44 207 753 5909 FREE  end_of_the_skype_highlighting (S.G.). E-mail: appendino@pharm.unipmn.it (G.A.); simon.gibbons@pharmacy.ac.uk (S.G.)., †

Università del Piemonte Orientale.

, ‡

Consorzio per lo Studio dei Metaboliti Secondari.

,

University of London.

, §

Centro Ricerca Colture Industriali.

Section:

Pharmacology

Abstract

Marijuana (Cannabis sativa) has long been known to contain antibacterial cannabinoids, whose potential to address antibiotic resistance has not yet been investigated. All five major cannabinoids (cannabidiol (1b), cannabichromene (2), cannabigerol (3b), Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (4b), and cannabinol (5)) showed potent activity against a variety of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains of current clinical relevance. Activity was remarkably tolerant to the nature of the prenyl moiety, to its relative position compared to the n-pentyl moiety (abnormal cannabinoids), and to carboxylation of the resorcinyl moiety (pre-cannabinoids). Conversely, methylation and acetylation of the phenolic hydroxyls, esterification of the carboxylic group of pre-cannabinoids, and introduction of a second prenyl moiety were all detrimental for antibacterial activity. Taken together, these observations suggest that the prenyl moiety of cannabinoids serves mainly as a modulator of lipid affinity for the olivetol core, a per se poorly active antibacterial pharmacophore, while their high potency definitely suggests a specific, but yet elusive, mechanism of activity.

Several studies have associated the abuse of marijuana (Cannabis sativa L. Cannabinaceae) with an increase in opportunistic infections,(1) and inhalation of marijuana has indeed been shown to interfere with the production of nitric oxide from pulmonary macrophages, impairing the respiratory defense mechanisms against pathogens and causing immunosuppression.(2) The association of C. sativa with a decreased protection against bacterial infections is paradoxical, since this plant has long been known to contain powerful antibacterial agents.(3) Thus, preparations from C. sativa were investigated extensively in the 1950s as highly active topical antiseptic agents for the oral cavity and the skin and as antitubercular agents.(3) Unfortunately, most of these investigations were done at a time when the phytochemistry of Cannabis was still in its infancy, and the remarkable antibacterial profile of the plant could not be related to any single, structurally defined and specific constituent. Evidence that pre-cannabidiol (1a) is a powerful plant antibiotic was, nevertheless, obtained,(4) and more recent investigations have demonstrated, to various degrees, antibacterial activity for the nonpsychotropic cannabinoids cannabichromene (CBC, 2),(5) cannabigerol (CBG, 3b),(6) and cannabidiol (1b),(7) as well as for the psychotropic agent Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, 4b).(7) These observations, and the inactivity of several noncannabinoid constituents of C. sativa as antibacterial agents, suggest that cannabinoids and their precursors are the most likely antibacterial agents present in C. sativa preparations.(8) However, differences in bacterial strains and end-points make it difficult to compare the data reported in these scattered studies, and the overall value of C. sativa as an antibacterial agent is therefore not easy to assess.

There are currently considerable challenges with the treatment of infections caused by strains of clinically relevant bacteria that show multidrug-resistance (MDR), such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and the recently emerged and extremely drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis XDR-TB. New antibacterials are therefore urgently needed, but only one new class of antibacterial has been introduced in the last 30 years.(9) Despite the excellent antibacterial activity of many plant secondary metabolites(10) and the ability of some of them to modify the resistance associated with MDR strains(11) and efflux pumps,(12) plants are still a substantially untapped source of antimicrobial agents.

These considerations, as well as the observation that cross-resistance to microbial and plant antibacterial agents is rare,(10) make C. sativa a potential source of compounds to address antibiotic resistance, one of the most urgent issues in antimicrobial therapy. To obtain structure−activity data and define a possible microbiocidal cannabinoid pharmacophore, we investigated the antibacterial profile of the five major cannabinoids, of their alkylation and acylation products, and of a selection of their carboxylic precursors (pre-cannabinoids) and synthetic positional isomers (abnormal cannabinoids).

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  • Results and Discussion
  • Experimental Section
  • References

Results and Discussion

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The antibacterial cannabinoid chemotype is poorly defined, as is the molecular mechanism of its activity. Since many simple phenols show antimicrobial properties, it does not seem unreasonable to assume that the resorcinol moiety of cannabinoids serves as the antibacterial pharmacophore, with the alkyl, terpenoid, and carboxylic appendices modulating its activity. To gain insight into the microbiocidal cannabinoid pharmacophore, we have investigated how the nature of the terpenoid moiety, its relative position compared to the n-pentyl group, and the effect of carboxylation of the resorcinyl moiety are translated biologically, assaying the major cannabinoids and a selection of their precursors and regioisomeric analogues against drug-resistant bacteria of clinical relevance. Within these, we have selected a panel of clinically relevant Staphylococcus aureus strains that includes the (in)famous EMRSA-15, one of the main epidemic methicillin-resistant strains,(13) and SA-1199B, a multidrug-resistant strain that overexpresses the NorA efflux mechanism, the best characterized antibiotic efflux pump in this species.(14) SA-1199B also possesses a gyrase mutation that, in addition to NorA, confers a high level of resistance to certain fluoroquinolones. A macrolide-resistant strain (RN4220),(15) a tetracycline-resistant line overexpressing the TetK efflux pump (XU212),(16) and a standard laboratory strain (ATCC25923) completed the bacterial panel.

Δ⁹-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, 4b), cannabidiol (CBD, 1b), cannabigerol (CBG, 3b), cannabichromene (CBC, 2), and cannabinol (CBN, 5) are the five most common cannabinoids.(17) They could be obtained in high purity (>98%) by isolation from strains of C. sativa producing a single major cannabinoid (THC, CBD, CBG), by total synthesis (CBC),(6) or by semisynthesis (CBN).(18) Their antimicrobial properties are listed in Table 1. All compounds showed potent antibacterial activity, with MIC values in the 0.5−2 μg/mL range. Activity was exceptional against some of these strains, in particular the multidrug-resistant (MDR) SA-1199B, which has a high level of resistance to certain fluoroquinolones. Also noteworthy is the potent activity demonstrated against EMRSA-15 and EMRSA-16, the major epidemic methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains occurring in U.K. hospitals.(13, 19) These activities compare highly favorably with the standard antibiotics for these strains. The potent activity against strains possessing the NorA and TetK efflux transporters suggests that cannabinoids are not substrates for the most common resistance mechanisms to current antibacterial agents, making them attractive antibacterial leads.

Table 1. MIC (μg/mL) Values of Cannabinoids and Their Analogues toward Various Drug-Resistant Strains of Staphylococcus aureus^ab

compound	SA-1199B	RN-4220	XU212	ATCC25923	EMRSA-15	EMRSA-16
1a	2	2	2	2	2	2
1b	1	1	1	0.5	1	1
2	2	2	1	2	2	2
3a	4	2	4	4	2	4
3b	1	1	1	1	2	1
3f	64	c	64	c	c	c
4a	8	4	8	4	8	4
4b	2	1	1	1	2	0.5
5	1	1	1	1	1	c
6	1	1	1	1	1	1
7	2	1	0.5	1	2	c
8	32	32	16	16	16	32
10	64	64	64	128	64	64
norfloxacin	32	1	4	1	0.5	128
erythromycin	0.25	64	>128	0.25	>128	>128
tetracycline	0.25	0.25	128	0.25	0.125	0.125
oxacillin	0.25	0.25	128	0.125	32	>128

a

Compounds 1c−g, 3c−e, 3g, and 9 exhibited MIC values of >128 μg/mL for all organisms in which they were evaluated.

b

Compound 11 exhibited MIC values of >256 μg/mL for all organisms in which they were evaluated.

c

Not tested.

Given their nonpsychotropic profiles, CBD (1b) and CBG (3b) seemed especially promising, and were selected for further structure−activity studies. Thus, acetylation and methylation of their phenolic hydroxyls (compounds 1c−e and 3c−e, respectively) were both detrimental for activity (MIC >100 μg/mL), in accordance with the essential role of the phenolic hydroxyls in the antibacterial properties. However, in light of the potent activity of the monophenols CBC (2), THC (4b), and CBN (5), it was surprising that monomethylation of the diphenols CBD (1b) and CBG (3b) was so poorly tolerated in terms of antibacterial activity.

Cannabinoids are the products of thermal degradation of their corresponding carboxylic acids (pre-cannabinoids).(17) Investigation of the antibacterial profile of the carboxylated versions of CBD, CBG, and THC (compounds 1a, 3a, and 4a, respectively) showed a substantial maintenance of activity. On the other hand, methylation of the carboxylic group (compounds 1f and 3f, respectively) caused a marked decrease of potency, as did esterification with phenethyl alcohol (compounds 1g and 3g, respectively). This operation is associated with a potentiation of the antibacterial properties of phenolic acids, as exemplified by phenethyl caffeate (CAPE), the major antibacterial from propolis, compared to caffeic acid.(20) Remarkably, the synthetic abnormal cannabinoids abn-CBD (6)(21) and abn-CBG (7)(22) showed antibacterial activity comparable to, although slightly less potent than, their corresponding natural products, while olivetol (10) showed modest activity against all six strains, with MICs of 64−128 μg/mL, and resorcinol (11) did not exhibit any activity even at 256 μg/mL. Thus, the pentyl chain and the monoterpene moiety greatly enhance the activity of resorcinol.

Taken together, these observations show that the cannabinoid antibacterial chemotype is remarkably tolerant to structural modification of the terpenoid moiety and its positional relationship with the n-pentyl chain, suggesting that these residues serve mainly as modulators of lipid affinity, and therefore cellular bioavailability. This view was substantiated by the marked decrease of activity observed when the antibacterial activity of CBG (3b) was compared to that of its polar analogue carmagerol (8).(23) The results against the resistant strains confirm this suggestion, and it is likely that the increased hydrophilicity caused by the addition of two hydroxyls greatly reduces the cellular bioavailability by substantially reducing membrane permeability. Conversely, the addition of a further prenyl moiety, as in the bis-prenylated cannabinoid 9,(21) while increasing membrane solubility, may result in poorer aqueous solubility and therefore a lower intracellular concentration, similarly leading to a substantial loss of activity. A single unfunctionalized terpenyl moiety seems therefore ideal in terms of lipophilicity balance for the antibacterial activity of olivetol derivatives. The great potency of cannabinoids suggests a specific interaction with a bacterial target, whose identity is, however, still elusive.

Given the availability of C. sativa strains producing high concentrations of nonpsychotropic cannabinoids, this plant represents an interesting source of antibacterial agents to address the problem of multidrug resistance in MRSA and other pathogenic bacteria. This issue has enormous clinical implications, since MRSA is spreading throughout the world and, in the United States, currently accounts for more deaths each year than AIDS.(24) Although the use of cannabinoids as systemic antibacterial agents awaits rigorous clinical trials and an assessment of the extent of their inactivation by serum,(25) their topical application to reduce skin colonization by MRSA seems promising, since MRSA resistant to mupirocin, the standard antibiotic for this indication, are being detected at a threatening rate.(26) Furthermore, since the cannabinoid anti-infective chemotype seems remarkably tolerant to modifications in the prenyl moiety, semipurified mixtures of cannabinoids could also be used as cheap and biodegradable antibacterial agents for cosmetics and toiletries, providing an alternative to the substantially much less potent synthetic preservatives, many of which are currently questioned for their suboptimal safety and environmental profile.(27)

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  • Results and Discussion
  • Experimental Section
  • References

Experimental Section

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General Experimental Procedures

IR spectra were obtained on a Shimadzu DR 8001 spectrophotometer. ¹H NMR (300 MHz) and ¹³C NMR (75 MHz) spectra were obtained at room temperature with a JEOL Eclipse spectrometer. The spectra were recorded in CDCl₃, and the solvent signals (7.26 and 77.0 ppm, respectively) were used as reference. The chemical shifts (δ) are given in ppm, and the coupling constants (J) in Hz. Silica gel 60 (70−230 mesh) and Lichroprep RP-18 (25−40 mesh) were used for gravity column chromatography. Reactions were monitored by TLC on Merck 60 F₂₅₄ (0.25 mm) plates and were visualized by UV inspection and/or staining with 5% H₂SO₄ in ethanol and heating. Organic phases were dried with Na₂SO₄ before evaporation. All known cannabinoids were identified according to their physical and spectroscopic data.(28) Semisynthetic cannabinoids 1c−f, and 3c−f were prepared and identified according to their corresponding literature references.(22, 29, 30) Synthetic [abnormal (6,(21) 7(6)) and polyprenyl (9)(21)] cannabinoids were synthesized and characterized according to the literature.

Plant Material

The three strains of Cannabis sativa used for the isolation of THC, CBD, and CBG came from greenhouse cultivation at CRA-CIN, Rovigo (Italy), where voucher specimens are kept for each of them, and were collected in September 2006. The isolation and manipulation of all cannabinoids were done in accordance with their legal status (License SP/101 of the Ministero della Salute, Rome, Italy).

Isolation of Cannabinoids (1b, 3b, 4b)

The powdered plant material (100 g) was distributed in a thin layer on cardboard and heated at 120 °C for 2 h in a ventilated oven to affect decarboxylation, then extracted with acetone (ratio solvent to plant material 3:1, ×3). The residue (6.5 g for the CBD chemotype, 4.1 g for the CBG chemotype, 7.4 g for the THC chemotype) was purified by gravity column chromatography on silica gel (ratio stationary phase to extract 6:1) using a petroleum ether−ether gradient. Fractions eluted with petroleum ether−ether (9:1) afforded 1b (628 mg, 0.63%, from the CBD chemotype) and 3b (561 mg, 0.56%, from the CBG chemotype), precipitated from hot hexane to obtain white powders. Crude THC (3.2 g, 3.2%, from the THC chemotype) was obtained as a greenish oil, part of which (400 mg) was further purified by RP-18 flash chromatography with methanol−water (1:1) as eluant, affording 4b as a colorless oil (315 mg).

Isolation of Pre-cannabinoids (1a, 3a, 4a)

The powdered plant material (100 g) was extracted with acetone (ratio solvent to plant material 5:1, ×3). After removal of the solvent, the residue (7.7 g for the CBD chemotype, 4.9 g for the CBG chemotype, 7.9 g for the THC chemotype) was fractionated by vacuum chromatography on RP-18 silica gel (ratio stationary phase to extract 5:1) using methanol−water (75:25) as eluant. Fractions of 100 mL were taken, and those containing pre-cannabinoids were pooled, concentrated to ca. half-volume at 30 °C, saturated with NaCl, and extracted with EtOAc. After removal of the solvent, the residue was further purified by gravity column chromatography on silica gel (ratio stationary phase to crude compound 5:1) using a petroleum ether−EtOAc gradient (from 8:2 to 5:5) to afford 1.59 g (1.6%) of 1a from the CBD chemotype, 0.93 g (0.93%) of 3a from the CBG chemotype, and 2.1 g (2.1%) of 4a from the THC chemotype. All pre-cannabinoids were obtained as white foams that resisted crystallization.

Synthesis of CBC (2) and CBN (5)

CBG (2) was synthesized from olivetol,(6) and CBN was prepared from THC (6) by aromatization with sulfur.(18)

Mitsunobu Esterification of Pre-cannabinoids (synthesis of 3g as an example)

To a cooled (ice bath) solution of 3a (360 mg, 1.1 mmol) in dry CH₂Cl₂ (4 mL) were added sequentially phenethyl alcohol (92 μL, 0.76 mmol, 0.75 molar equiv), triphenylphosphine (TPP) (220 mg, 0.84 mmol, 0.80 molar equiv), and diisopropyldiazodicarboxylate (DIAD) (228 μL, 1.1 mmol, 1 molar equiv). At the end of the addition, the cooling bath was removed, and the reaction was stirred at room temperature. After 16 h, the reaction was worked up by evaporation, and the residue was dissolved in toluene and cooled at 4 °C overnight to remove most of the TPPO-dihydroDIAD adduct. The filtrate was evaporated and purified by gravity column chromatography on silica gel (10 g, petroleum ether as eluant) to afford 126 mg (32%) of 3g. Under the same reaction conditions, the yield of 1g from 1a was 26%.

Pre-cannabigerol Phenethyl Ester (3g):

colorless foam; IR ν^KBr_max 3746, 3513, 3313, 1715, 1589, 1421, 1274, 1164, 980, 804, 690 cm⁻¹; ¹H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 12.08 (1H, s), 7.25 (5H, m), 6.02 (1H, s), 5.98 (1H, s), 5,25 (1H, br t, J = 7.0 Hz), 5.01 (1H, br t, J = 6.5 Hz), 4.56 (2H, t, J = 6.6 Hz), 3.40 (2H, d, J = 7.3 Hz), 3.1 (2H, t, J = 6.6 Hz), 2.7 (2H, t, J = 6.6 Hz), 2.05 (4H, m), 1.79 (3H, s), 1.65 (3H, s), 1.57 (3H, s), 1.24 (6H, m), 0.88 (3H, t, J = 7.1 Hz); ¹³C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 172.1 (s), 162.7 (s), 159.5 (s), 148.8 (s), 139.1 (s), 137.4 (d), 132.1 (s), 128.8 (d), 126.8 (d), 125.9 (d), 121.5 (d), 111.5 (s), 110.8 (s), 65.8 (t), 39.8 (t), 36.6 (t), 35.0 (t), 32.0 (t), 31.5 (t), 26.5 (t), 25.8 (q), 22.2 (t), 17.8 (q), 16.3 (q), 14.2 (q); CIMS m/z [M + H] 465 [C₃₀H₄₀O₄ + H].

Pre-cannabidiol Phenethyl Ester (1g):

colorless oil; IR (KBr) ν_max 3587, 3517, 3423, 3027, 1642, 1499, 1425, 1274, 1172, 1143, 980, 894 cm⁻¹; ¹HNMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 12.13 (1H, s), 6.23 (5H, m), 6.48 (1H, s), 6.19 (1H, s), 5,55 (1H, s), 4.52 (3H, m), 4.4 (1H, s), 4.08 (1H, br s), 3.08 (2H, t, J = 7.0 Hz), 2.7 (2H, m), 2.11 (1H, m), 1.78 (3H, s), 1.71 (3H, s), 1.5 (4H, m), 1.28 (6H, m), 0.88 (3H, t, J = 6.9 Hz); ¹³C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 172.2 (s), 171.5 (s), 163.5 (s), 160.0 (s), 148.8 (s), 147.0 (s), 145.9 (s), 140.2 (s), 137.4 (s), 128.7 (d), 126.7 (d), 124.0 (d), 114.4 (t), 112.3 (d), 105.8 (s), 65.6 (t), 46.6 (d), 39.1 (t), 37.0 (d), 31.9 (d), 31.5 (t), 27.8 (t), 25.3 (q), 22.6 (t), 21.9 (t), 18.5 (q), 14.1 (q); CIMS m/z [M + H] 463 [C₃₀H₃₈O₄ + H].

Bacterial Strains and Chemicals

A standard S. aureus strain (ATCC 25923) and a clinical isolate (XU212), which possesses the TetK efflux pump and is also a MRSA strain, were obtained from E. Udo.(16) Strain RN4220, which has the MsrA macrolide efflux pump, was provided by J. Cove.(30) EMRSA-15(13) and EMRSA-16(19) were obtained from Paul Stapleton. Strain SA-1199B, which overexpresses the NorA MDR efflux pump, was the gift of Professor Glenn Kaatz.(14) Tetracycline, norfloxacin, erythromycin, and oxacillin were obtained from Sigma Chemical Co. Oxacillin was used in place of methicillin as recommended by the NCCLS. Mueller-Hinton broth (MHB; Oxoid) was adjusted to contain 20 mg/L Ca²⁺ and 10 mg/L Mg²⁺.

Antibacterial Assays

Overnight cultures of each strain were made up in 0.9% saline to an inoculum density of 5 × 10⁵ cfu by comparison with a MacFarland standard. Tetracycline and oxacillin were dissolved directly in MHB, whereas norfloxacin and erythromycin were dissolved in DMSO and then diluted in MHB to give a starting concentration of 512 μg/mL. Using Nunc 96-well microtiter plates, 125 μL of MHB was dispensed into wells 1−11. Then, 125 μL of the test compound or the appropriate antibiotic was dispensed into well 1 and serially diluted across the plate, leaving well 11 empty for the growth control. The final volume was dispensed into well 12, which being free of MHB or inoculum served as the sterile control. Finally, the bacterial inoculum (125 μL) was added to wells 1−11, and the plate was incubated at 37 °C for 18 h. A DMSO control (3.125%) was also included. All MICs were determined in duplicate. The MIC was determined as the lowest concentration at which no growth was observed. A methanolic solution (5 mg/mL) of 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliium bromide (MTT; Lancaster) was used to detect bacterial growth by a color change from yellow to blue.

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    14.

    Efflux-mediated fluoroquinolone resistance in Staphylococcus aureus

    Kaatz, Glenn W.; Seo, Susan M.; Ruble, Cheryl A.

    Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (1993), 37 (5), 1086-94 CODEN: AMACCQ; ISSN:0066-4804.

    Transport processes are used by all organisms to obtain essential nutrients and to expel wastes and other potentially harmful substances from cells. Such processes are important means by which resistance to selected antimicrobial agents in bacteria is achieved. The recently described Staphylococcus aureus norA gene encodes a membrane-assocd. protein that mediates active efflux of fluoroquinolones from cells. SA-1199B is a fluoroquinolone-resistant strain of S. aureus from which an allele of norA (norA1199) was cloned. Similar to that of norA, the protein product of norA1199 preferentially mediates efflux of hydrophilic fluoroquinolones in both S. aureus and an Escherichia coli host, a process driven by the protonmotive force. Detn. of the nucleotide sequence of norA1199 revealed an encoded 388-amino-acid hydrophobic polypeptide 95% homologous with the norA-encoded protein. Significant homol. with other proteins involved in transport processes also exists, but esp. with tetracycline efflux proteins and with the Bacillus subtilis Bmr protein that mediates active efflux of structurally unrelated compds., including fluoroquinolones. In S. aureus, the norA1199-encoded protein also appears to function as a multidrug efflux transporter. Southern hybridization studies indicated that norA1199 (or an allele of it) is a naturally occurring S. aureus gene and that related sequences are present in the S. epidermidis genome. The nucleotide sequence of the wild-type allele of norA1199, cloned from the fluoroquinolone-susceptible parent strain of SA-1199B, did not differ from that of norA1199 throughout the coding region. Northern (RNA) and Southern hybridization studies showed that increased transcription, and not gene amplification, of norA1199 is the basis for fluoroquinolone resistance in SA-1199B.

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15. 15.

    Ross, J. I., Farrell, A. M., Eady, E. A., Cove, J. H., and Cunliffe, W. J. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1989, 24, 851– 862

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    15.

    Characterization and molecular cloning of the novel macrolide-streptogramin B resistance determinant from Staphylococcus epidermidis

    Ross, Jeremy I.; Farrell, Angela M.; Eady, E. Anne; Cove, Jonathan H.; Cunliffe, William J.

    Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (1989), 24 (6), 851-62 CODEN: JACHDX; ISSN:0305-7453.

    Some 110 staphylococcal isolates from human skin were found to express a novel type of erythromycin resistance. The bacteria were resistant to 14-membered ring macrolides (MIC 32-128 mg/L) but were sensitive to 16-membered ring macrolides and lincosamides. Resistance to type B streptogramins was inducible by erythromycin. A similar phenotype, designated MS resistance, was previously described in clin. isolates of coagulase-neg. staphylococci from the USA. In the UK, MS resistance is widely distributed in coagulase-neg. staphylococci but was not detected in 100 erythromcyin-resistant clin. isolates of S. aureus. Tests for susceptibility to a further 16 antibiotics failed to reveal any other selectable marker assocd. with the MS phenotype. Plasmid pattern anal. of 48 MS isolates showed considerable variability between strains and no common locus for the resistance determinant. In one strain of S. epidermidis, co-resistance to tetracycline, penicillin, and erythromycin (MS) was assocd. with a 31.5 kb plasmid, pUL5050, which replicated and expressed all three resistances when transformed into S. aureus RN4220. The MS resistance determinant was localized to a 1.9 kb fragment which was cloned onto the high-copy-no. vector, pSK265. A constitutive mutant of S. aureus RN4220 contg. the 1.9 kb fragment remained sensitive to clindamycin. This observation, together with the concn.-dependent induction (optimum 5 mg/L of erythromycin) of virginiamycin S resistance, suggests that the MS phenotype is not due to altered expression of MLS resistance determinants (erm genes) but probably occurs via a different mechanism.

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16. 16.

    Gibbons, S. and Udo, E. E. Phytother. Res. 2000, 14, 139– 140

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    16.

    The effect of reserpine, a modulator of multidrug efflux pumps, on the in vitro activity of tetracycline against clinical isolates of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) possessing the tet(K) determinant

    Gibbons, Simon; Udo, E. E.

    Phytotherapy Research (2000), 14 (2), 139-140 CODEN: PHYREH; ISSN:0951-418X. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

    As part of a screening program to identify modulators of multidrug efflux in methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), we have validated our assays using the antihypertensive plant alkaloid reserpine. Clin. isolates of MRSA were resistant to tetracycline and shown to possess the tet(K) determinant which encodes for the Tet(K) efflux protein, which conferred high level resistance to tetracycline (MIC = 128 μg/mL). In the presence of reserpine, a known inhibitor of multidrug resistance (mdr) efflux pumps, this MIC was significantly reduced (MIC = 32 μg/mL).

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17. 17.

    (a) Mechoulam, R., McCallum, N. K., and Burstein, S. Chem. Rev. 1976, 76, 75– 112

    [ACS Full Text ], [CAS]

    17.

    Recent advances in the chemistry and biochemistry of cannabis

    Mechoulam, Raphael; McCallum, Neil K.; Burstein, Sumner

    Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) (1976), 76 (1), 75-112 CODEN: CHREAY; ISSN:0009-2665.

    A review with 409 refs.

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    (b) Elsohly, M. A. and Slade, D. Life Sci. 2005, 78, 539– 548

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    17.

    Chemical constituents of marijuana: The complex mixture of natural cannabinoids

    ElSohly, Mahmoud A.; Slade, Desmond

    Life Sciences (2005), 78 (5), 539-548 CODEN: LIFSAK; ISSN:0024-3205. (Elsevier B.V.)

    A review. The cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa L.) and products thereof (such as marijuana, hashish and hash oil) have a long history of use both as a medicinal agent and intoxicant. Over the last few years there have been an active debate regarding the medicinal aspects of cannabis. Currently cannabis products are classified as Schedule I drugs under the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Controlled Substances act, which means that the drug is only available for human use as an investigational drug. In addn. to the social aspects of the use of the drug and its abuse potential, the issue of approving it as a medicine is further complicated by the complexity of the chem. make up of the plant. This manuscript discusses the chem. constituents of the plant with particular emphasis on the cannabinoids as the class of compds. responsible for the drug's psychol. properties.

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18. 18.

    (a) Ghosh, R., Todd, A. R., and Wilkinson, S. J. Chem. Soc. 1940, 1393– 1396

    [CrossRef], [CAS]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.

    (b) Bastola, K. P., Hazekamp, A., and Verpoorte, R. Planta Med. 2007, 73, 273– 275

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    18.

    Synthesis and spectroscopic characterization of cannabinolic acid

    Bastola, Krishna Prasad; Hazekamp, Arno; Verpoorte, Robert

    Planta Medica (2007), 73 (3), 273-275 CODEN: PLMEAA; ISSN:0032-0943. (Georg Thieme Verlag)

    Cannabinoids, the main constituents of the cannabis plant, are being increasingly studied for their medicinal properties. Cannabinolic acid (I) was synthesized from tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, a major constituent of the cannabis plant, by aromatization using selenium dioxide mixed with trimethylsilyl polyphosphate as catalyst in chloroform. Purifn. was achieved by centrifugal partition chromatog., and the final product had a purity of over 96% by GC anal. Spectroscopic data on I such as 1H-NMR and IR, and molar extinction coeffs., as well as chromatog. data are presented as useful refs. for further research on I. The developed method allows prodn. of I on a preparative scale, making it available for further studies on its biol. activities as well as use as a ref. std. for anal. procedures.

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19. 19.

    Cox, R. A., Conquest, C., Mallaghan, C., and Maples, R. R. J. Hosp. Infect. 1995, 29, 87– 106

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    19.

    A major outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus caused by a new phage-type (EMRSA-16)

    Cox R A; Conquest C; Mallaghan C; Marples R R

    The Journal of hospital infection (1995), 29 (2), 87-106 ISSN:0195-6701.

    An outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection caused by a novel phage-type (now designated EMRSA-16) occurred in three hospitals in East Northamptonshire over a 21-month period (April 1991--December 1992). Four hundred patients were colonized or infected. Seven patients died as a direct result of infection. Chest infections were significantly associated with the outbreak strain when compared with methicillin-sensitive S. aureus. Twenty-seven staff and two relatives who cared for patients were also colonized. A 'search and destroy' strategy, as advocated in the current UK guidelines for control of epidemic MRSA was implemented after detection of the first case. Despite extensive screening of staff and patients and isolation of colonized and infected patients, the outbreak strain spread to all wards of the three hospitals except paediatrics and maternity. A high incidence of throat colonization (51%) was observed. Failure to recognize the importance of this until late in the outbreak contributed to the delay in containing its spread. Key parts of the strategy which eventually contained the local outbreak were the establishment of isolation wards in two hospitals, treatment of all colonized patients and staff to eradicate carriage and screening of all patients upon discharge from wards where MRSA had ever been detected. EMRSA-16 spread to neighbouring hospitals by early 1992 and to London and the South of England by 1993. It is distinguished from other epidemic strains by its characteristic phage-type, antibiogram (susceptibility to tetracycline and resistance to ciprofloxacin), and in the pattern given on pulse field electrophoresis.

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20. 20.

    Castaldo, S. and Capasso, F. Fitoterapia 2002, 73 S1−S6

    [CrossRef], [PubMed]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
21. 21.

    Razdan, R. K., Dalzell, H. C., and Handrick, G. R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1974, 96, 5860– 5865

    [ACS Full Text ], [PubMed], [CAS]

    21.

    Hashish. X. Simple one-step synthesis of (-)-Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) from p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol and olivetol

    Razdan, Raj K.; Dalzell, Haldean C.; Handrick, G. Richard

    Journal of the American Chemical Society (1974), 96 (18), 5860-5 CODEN: JACSAT; ISSN:0002-7863.

    Optically pure (-)-Δ1-THC (I) was produced in 50% yield in a single step synthesis from cis/trans-(+)-p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol and olivetol in the presence of 1% boron trifluoride etherate and anhyd. MgSO4 in CH2Cl2 at 0°. The other major product formed was trans-Δ8-iso-THC [II, R = OH, R1 = (CH2)4Me]. By the same procedure (-)-cannabidiol [III, R = OH, R1 = (CH2)4Me] was obtained on a preparative scale when <0.5% boron trifluoride etherate or wet p-toluenesulfonic acid was used. Cannabidiols III [R = (CH2)4Me, R1 = OH; R = OH, R1 = (CH2)4Me] are the key intermediates in this reaction. Acid catalyzed reactions of p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol and olivetol gave the cannabinoids II [R = (CH2)4Me, R1 = OH], IV and V.

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22. 22.

    Baek, S. H., Srebnik, M., and Mechoulam, R. Tetrahedron Lett. 1985, 26, 1083– 1086

    [CrossRef], [CAS]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
23. 23.

    Appendino, G.

    Unpublished results

    .

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
24. 24.

    Bancroft, E. A. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2007, 298, 1803

    [CrossRef]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
25. 25.

    Mechoulam, R. and Gaoni, Y. Tetrahedron 1965, 21, 1223– 1229

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
26. 26.

    Simor, A. E., Stuart, T. L., Louie, L., Watt, C., Ofner-Agostini, M., Gravel, D., Mulvey, M., Loeb, M., McGeer, A., Bryce, E., and Matlow, A. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51, 3880– 3886

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
27. 27.

    McGrath, K. G. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 2003, 12, 479– 485

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
28. 28.

    Hazekamp, A., Peltenburg, A., Verpoorte, R., and Giroud, C. J. Liq. Chromatogr. Rel. Technol. 2005, 28, 2361– 2382

    [CrossRef], [CAS]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
29. 29.

    Vailancourt, V. and Albizati, K. F. J. Org. Chem. 1992, 57, 3627– 3631

    [ACS Full Text ]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
30. 30.

    Mechoulam, R. and Gaoni, Y. Tetrahedron 1965, 21, 1223– 1229

    [CrossRef], [PubMed], [CAS]

    There is no corresponding record for this reference.